GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY

➡the theory of learning by insight is the contribution of Gestalt Psychologist.

➡They believe that "the whole is more important than it's parts".

➡Wolfgang Kohler, Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, etc. were the prominent Gestalt Psychologist.

    GESTALT LAW OF LEARNING

1. Law of Similarity

- states that "when there are different sets of objects on view, then they are perceived as groups rather than individual objects".

2. Law of Proximity

- states that "objects which are close together are likely to be seen as a group".

3. Law of Closure

-  according to the law of closure, we prefer complete forms to incomplete forms.

4. Law of Continuity

- states that "we link individual elements of a configuration so that they form continuous pattern that makes sense to us".

REFLECTION:
Individuals has its own perception it depends to us on how we interpret situation. Not all that we saw is true we need to find looked deeply.

NEO-BEHAVIORISM

Edward Tolman (1886-1959)

-      He developed a system of psychology known as purposive, or molar behaviorism which attempts to explore the entire action of the total organism.

-      Suggested that the unit of behavior is the total, goal-directed act, using varied muscular movements that are organized around the purposes served and guided by cognitive processes.

* Purposive Behaviorism *

-  a branch of psychology that was introduced by Edward Thorndike.

- combines the objective study of behavior while also considering the purpose of behavior.

Latent Learning

-      Learning which is not apparent in the learner's behavior at the time of learning, but which manifests later when a suitable motivation and circumstances appear.

Cognitive Map

-      Was an internal perceptual representation of external environmental features and landmarks.

Albert Bandura

-      Born on December 4, 1925 in Alberta, Canada. He showed that children mimic aggressive behavior. He had discoveries in observable learning. He conducted research and taught at Stanford University from 1953 to the present.

Observational Learning

-      The process of learning by observing a model and then duplicating a skill, process, strategy, or task that is demonstrated by the model.

INFLUENCING FACTORS

1. Attention- extent to which we focus on other's behavior.

2.Retention- our ability to retain a representation of other's behavior in memory.

3. ProductionProcesses- our ability to actually perform the actions we observe.

4.Motivation- our need for the actions we witness, their usefulness to us.

REFLECTION:

As a future teacher I should be a good model to my students so that they will follow the good deeds not the wrong one.

BEHAVIORISM

- focuses on the study of observable and measurable behavior. It emphasize that behavior is worthy learned through conditioning and reinforcement (reward and punishment).

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

➡ a Russian psychologist is well known for his work in classical conditioning or stimulus substitution. Most renewed experiment involved meat, a dog and a bell.

Classical Conditioning - a type of learning that had a major influence on the school of thought in psychology known as behaviorism.

 PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL

 CONDITIONING

a.)Acquisition

 - The initial stage of learning when a response is first established and gradually strengthened.

b.)Extinction

- When the occurrences of a conditioned response decrease or disappear.

  - This happens when a conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

c.)Spontaneous Recovery

 - The reappearance of the conditioned response after a rest period or period of lessened period.

d.)Stimulus Generalization

 - The tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses after the response has been conditioned.

e.)Discrimination

- The ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING PROCESS

Before Conditioning

-      The first part of this process requires a naturally occurring stimulus that will automatically elicit a response.

During Conditioning

-      During the second phase, the previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

After Conditioning

-      Once the association has made between unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned stimulus, presenting the conditioned stimulus alone will come to evoke a response even in the absence of the UCS. The resulting response is known as CS.

Edward L. Thorndike- (1874-1949)

-      Connectionism theory gave the original S-R framework of behavioral psychology. More than a years ago he wrote a textbook

-      "EducationalPsychology" was first one used thus term. Explain that learning is the result of associations forming between stimulus(S) and responses (R)

MAIN PRINCIPLE

-      That learning could be adequately explain without considering any unobservable internal states.

-      Thorndike's theory on connectionism states that learning has taken place when a strong connection or bond between stimulus and response is formed.

1.) Law of Effect

- states that a connection between a stimulus and response is strengthened when the consequence is positive and the connection between the stimulus and the response is weakened when the consequence is negative.

2.)Law of Exercise

- tell us that the more S-R bond is practice the stronger it will become.

3.) Law of Readiness

- states that the more readiness the learner has to respond to the stimulus, the stronger will be the bond between them.

John Watson (1878-1958)

➡was the first American psychologist to work with Pavlov's ideas. Initially involved in animals studies, and then later became involved in human behavior research.

➡considered that human are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions of love and range.

REFLECTION:

Every person has deferent behaviors, so it important to us to know and  it for them to  be understood.

LEARNERS WITH EXCEPTIONALITIES

*Disability - is a measurable impairment or limitation that interferes with a person's ability, for example, to walk, lift, hear, or learn.

*Handicap - is a disadvantage that occur as a result of a disability or impairment.  

                                                   

CATEGORIES OF EXCEPTIONALITIES

1. Specific Cognitive or Academic Difficulties:

 a.) Learning Disabilities - involves difficulties in specific cognitive processes like perception, language, memory or metacognition that are not due to other disabilities like mental retardation, emotional or behavioral disorders or sensory impairments.

b.) Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder - ADHD is manifested in both of these: difficulty in focusing and maintaining attention and recurrent hyperactive and impulsive behavior.

c.) Speech and Communication Disorder - us difficulty in spoken language including voice disorders, inability to produce the sounds correctly, difficulty in spoken language comprehension that significantly hamper classroom performance.

2. Social/Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties:

a.) Autism - is a condition manifested by different levels of impaired social interaction and communication, repetitive behaviors and limited interest.

b.) Mental Retardation - refers to significant sub-average Intelligence and deficit in adaptive behavior.

 c.) Emotional/Conduct Disorder- involves the presence of emotional states like depression and aggression over a considered able amount of time that they notably disturb learning performance in school.

3. Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments:

a.) Physical and Health Impairments - physical or medical conditions, limited energy and strength, reduced mental alertness and/or little muscle control.

 b.) Severe and Multiple Disabilities - refers to the presence of two or more different types of disability, at a time of a profound level.

4. Sensory Impairments:

 a.) Visual Impairment - condition s when there is malfunction of the eyes or optic nerves that prevent normal vision even with corrective lenses.

 b.) Hearing Impairment - malfunction of the ear or auditory nerves that hinders perception of sounds within the frequency range of normal speech.

5. Giftedness - involves a significant high level of cognitive development.

REFLECTION: 

Not all children were lucky there are some who's did not, they have disabilities that is hindrace to  them to learn and to socialized with others. instead of ignoring them lets help them to inhance there abilities that they have.

 MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

According to HowardGardner, (1993) all human beings have multiple intelligences that can be nurtured and strengthened, or ignored and weakened. He believes each individual possesses nine(9) intelligences.

1. Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence - a well developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the sounds, meanings, and rhythms of words. People with this intelligence can be writers, lawyers, or journalists.

2. Mathematical Intelligence - ability to think conceptually and abstractly, and the capacity to discern logical or numerical patterns. If one has this ability then he is “number smart " and can be engineers, accountants, or statisticians.

3. Musical Intelligence - ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch and timber. A person with this ability is "music smart". They can be musicians, singers, or musical composers.

4. Visual- Spatial Intelligence - capacity to think of images and pictures, to visualize accurately and abstractly. People with this Intelligence can be artists, designers, architects or sculptors.

5. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence- ability to control one's body movements, handle objects skillfully and can also use the body to express emotion like in dancing. Persons with this Intelligence are "body smart" and can be dancers, athletes or sports people.

6. Interpersonal Intelligence - capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the moods, motivations and desires of others. It is how one relates person to person. If one has this capacity he is "people smart". Anyone with this Intelligence can be therapists, counselors, clergymen or psychologists.

7. Intrapersonal Intelligence - capacity to be self-aware and I'm tube with inner feelings, values, beliefs and thinking processes. This person is "self smart". He can be a theorist, philosopher or researcher and can be an achiever in his own right.

8. Naturalist Intelligence - ability to recognize plants, animals or flora and fauna, and other objects in nature. This pertains to "nature smart"and can be botanists or agriculturists.

9. Existential Intelligence - sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions about human existence, such as the meaning of life, why do things perish and or can one survive suffering.

REFLECTION:

Each of us has unique intellectual potential. I possesses Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence since I have an ability to control movement and I know to dance.

THEORIES OF STYLES

1. COGNITIVE STYLES –refer to the preferred way of an individual processes information.

                                      - is a term used in cognitive psychology to described the way individual think, perceive, and remember information.

1.    Scanning – differences in the extent and intensity of attention resulting in variations in the vividness of experience and the span of awareness.

2.    Leveling vs. Sharpening – individual variation in remembering that pertains to the distinctiveness of memories and the tendency to merge similar events.

3.    Reflections. Impulsivility – an individual constancy in the speed and adequacy with which alternative hypotheses are formed and responses made.

4.    Conceptual differences – differences in the tendency to categories perceive similarities among stimulus in terms of separate concepts or dimensions.

GUILFORD- STRUCTURE OF INTELLECT

·        Content features in the Guilford SI

a)    Visual – information perceived through seeing.

b)   Auditory – information perceived through hearing.

c)    Symbolic – information perceived as symbols or signs that stand for something else.

d)   Semantic – concerned with verbal meaning and ideas.

e)    Behavioral – information perceived as acts of people.

·        Product features in  the Guilford SI

        a) Units – single items of knowledge.

        b) Classes – sets of units sharing common attributes.

     c) Relations – units linked as opposites in associations sequences or analysis.

        d) Systems – multiple relations interrelated to comprise structures or networks.

  e) Transformations – changes, perspectives, conversions or mutations to      knowledge.

         f) Implication – predictions, inferences, consequences or anticipations of knowledge.

·        Operation features of Guilford SI

1. Cognition – the ability to understand, comprehend, discover and become aware of information.

2. Memory recording – the ability to encode information.

3. Memory retention – the ability to recall information.

4. Divergent production – the ability to generate multiple solutions to problem.

5. Convergent production – the ability to reduce a single solution to a problem.

6. Evaluation – the ability to judge whether or not information is accurate, consistent or valid.

                                  LEARNING STYLE

-      the term learning style “speaks to the understanding that every students learn differently”. Technically, can individual learning style refers to the preferential way in which the student absorbs, processes, comprehend and retain information.

7 Learning Style

1. Visual – these people prefer to use pictures, image, diagram and mind maps.

2. Physical – learning by doing.

3. Aural – people who prefers using sounds, rhythm, music, reading and so on.

4. Verbal – is someone who prefers using words both in speech and writing to assist in their learning..

5. Logical – people who prefer using logic, reasoning, and systems to explain or understand concepts.

6. Social – people are the ones who enjoy learning in groups.

7. Solitary – learners prefer to learn alone and through self study.

REFLECTION:

 Theories in Learning style is concerned with the learner's internal cognitive processes. This theories helps me to measure the cognitive ability of a person, on how they absorb, process, comprehend and retain information. Also, helps me to know what learning style they're compatible with.

CONTENT VS. PROCESS THEORIES

*CONTENTTHEORIES – it focus on the factor within a person that energize, direct, sustain and stop behavior.

* PROCESSTHEORIES- provide a description and analysis of how behavior is energize, directed, sustained and stopped.

IMPLICATION OF THEORIES CONTENT – theories for program designers content theories focus on individual needs in explaining job satisfaction, behavior and reward system.

PROCESS THEORIES OF MOTIVATION PROCESS – theories attempt to explain how behavior is energized, direct, sustained and stopped.

                             4 MAJOR PROCESS THEORIES:

1. REINFORCEMENTTHEORY

 – Any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows.

-Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being repeated.

a)    Positivereinforcers – are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior. A behavior is strengthened by praise or direct reward.

b)   Negative reinforcers- involved the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of a behavior. A behavior is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant.

c)    PUNISHMENT – an undesirable consequence of particular behavior.

2. EXPECTANCYMODEL – looks at how likely it is that the performance and outcome will occur.

3.EQUITYTHEORY – theory is based on the taking up that employees compose their efforts and rewards with those of others, in similar works situations.

4. GOAL-SETTINGTHEORY – developed by J. Stacey Adams, a research psychologist working for general Electric, is considered by many researchers to be too restricted and incomplete to be useful for general application.

a)    Intrinsicrewards – rewards that are part of the job itself (responsibility, challenge, and feedback, or rewards that are self-administered.)

b)   Extrinsic rewards – rewards that are external to be job (pay, promotion, fringe benefits or tangible rewards, or rewards that are administered by someone else.

REFLECTION:

Content theory and Process theory was different from each other. content theory emphasizes the the reasons of our needs while process theory focuses on the psychological processes which affect our motivation. It helps me to know the needs and understand the behavior of the individual to motivate them.